What could be more fundamentally philosophical than the exploration of the self and its relationship to the world. This is a central theme that has been approached from myriad perspectives. Among these, Max Stirner's radical egoism presents a provocative stance that challenges conventional notions of identity and authority. Stirner's egoism posits that the individual, driven by self-interest and free from constraints, is the ultimate arbiter of value and meaning.
This perspective is similar to the spiritual philosophies of Taoism, which emphasizes a connection to the self, paired with a harmonious alignment with something like a natural order, as well as the dissolution of the externally dominated ideas of the ego.
Taoism, in contrast to Egoism has undergone significant commodification throughout its history. It originated in the 6th century BCE. Over centuries, its practices, such as meditation, feng shui, and traditional Chinese medicine, have been commercialized both within China and globally.
During the Tang and Song dynasties, Taoist rituals and texts became integrated into state functions and popular culture, which led to the proliferation of Taoist temples and monasteries funded by the state and wealthy patrons.
In modern times, the global wellness industry has appropriated Taoist concepts, and loves to package them into little nicnacs rich people put in their houses, fun boughie meeting spots like tai chi classes, and self-help books that promise spiritual enlightenment and a Bughatti.
While this commodification has spread Taoist practices worldwide it has also very much diluted its original philosophical explorations.
The same cannot be said about Max Stirner’s Egoism.
In fact, his work has either been shunned, gatekept or circumnavigated as if it never happened. Stirner’s ideas, which emphasize a super specific kind of egoism and mocks any and all notions of collective identity or authority, are not really taken seriously within the mainstream philosophical realm altogether.
So what is the difference? Why the lack of commodification?
This is precisely what I am going to try to explore in this essay. By examining key aspects of writing style, this essay will illustrate why The Ego and Its Own remains a challenging, yet intellectually compelling, philosophical work - which, in my opinion, is actually much more similar to Taoist works than most people would admit.
This is one further step in my mission to show the value of Max Stirner’s rhetorical approach to any and all resistance missions - be it personal, cultural or spiritual.
The Fundamental Texts of Taoism
Taoism, a philosophical tradition that has shaped Chinese thought for over two millennia, rests on two cornerstone texts: the Tao Te Ching and the Zhuangzi. These works provide the foundational principles and philosophical underpinnings of Taoist thought and emphasize something that is described as the harmony with the Tao (or Dao), the ineffable force that governs the universe.
The Tao Te Ching
The Tao Te Ching is the quintessential text of Taoism. Believed to have been written in the 6th century BCE, this text comprises 81 chapters of succinct and profound aphorisms. The title is often translated as “The Classic of the Way and Its Virtue,” but that is just as stupid of a translation as The Ego and its Own, considering its original German title which means something more like: The Unique One, or the Only One and his Property. Luckily it has more than one translations. Tao or Dao means The Way or The Way Things Are and Te means Power (I don’t think virtue is a good translation as it implies moral connections that just aren’t there). Ching just means classic or scripture.
At its core, the Tao Te Ching presents the concept of the Tao, which is essentially an abstract, all-encompassing principle that signifies the paradoxical nature of the universe. The Tao is described as something that cannot be fully articulated; it is beyond words and human comprehension. The opening lines of the text famously state:
“The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao; the name that can be named is not the eternal name.”
Laozi advocates for a life of simplicity, humility, and wu wei, often translated as "non-action" or "effortless action." This principle suggests that non-action will essentially catapult the observing individual into alignment with the Tao without the need for forceful intervention. The text also emphasizes the power of softness and flexibility. It metaphorically associates them with water, which is capable of overcoming the hardest substances through its gentle persistence.
The Zhuangzi
The second fundamental text of Taoism is the Zhuangzi, named after its author, Zhuang Zhou (or Chuang Tzu), who lived around the 4th century BCE. The Zhuangzi builds upon the philosophical foundations laid by the Tao Te Ching and is distinguished by its use of parables, allegories, and anecdotes to explore and illustrate Taoist concepts.
The Zhuangzi explores themes such as the immateriality and relativity of human concepts, the value of a kind of unapologetic spontaneity, and the idea of living in accordance with desire in a very Stirnerian sense. One of the most famous passages from the text is the story of Zhuang Zhou dreaming of being a butterfly, questioning upon waking whether he was a man who had dreamed of being a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming he was a man. This parable highlights the fluidity and immateriality of identity and ideals, and the elusive nature of reality.
In contrast to the often terse and cryptic style of the Tao Te Ching, the Zhuangzi is more expansive and humorous, and it utilizes wit and paradox to convey its teachings. It also offers a critique of rigid social conventions and intellectual pretensions, thereby advocating instead for a much more intuitive and egocentric understanding of the world.
Comparative Analysis and Influence
Together, the Tao Te Ching and the Zhuangzi form the bedrock of Taoist thought. While the Tao Te Ching provides a concise and cryptic framework of Taoist philosophy, the Zhuangzi offers a more elaborate and narrative-driven exploration of those ideas. Both texts emphasize the importance of aligning with the Tao, but they approach this goal through different literary and philosophical methods.
Max Stirner's The Ego and Its Own and the foundational Taoist texts, the Tao Te Ching and the Zhuangzi, share intriguing philosophical similarities, particularly in their emphasis on the individual’s relationship to the broader world and the critique of established norms. Stirner's radical egoism posits the individual as the ultimate authority, which parallels the Taoist notion of aligning with the Tao by transcending rigid social conventions and intellectual pretensions.
Often, Egoism is understood as a radical ego-focus which people misunderstand as a kind of self-objectification. The individual Stirner illuminates, however, is not one that is objectifiable as it is aligned with its own existential power.
The Tao Te Ching's principle of wu wei, or effortless action, and the Zhuangzi's emphasis on fluidity resonate with Stirner's idea of living according to one's own desires without external imposition. Both the Taoist texts and Stirner challenge conventional identities and stand for a form of authenticity that arises from within the individual, rather than from adherence to external standards or authorities.
Brief Textual Analysis
Tao Te Ching by Laozi
Let’s look at the some key themes that are discussed in Taoism as well as Stirner’s Egoism.
Conciseness and Brevity
The Tao Te Ching is renowned for its concise and aphoristic style. Each of its 81 chapters is typically composed of a few short verses, making profound philosophical statements with remarkable brevity. This economy of words requires readers to deeply contemplate the text, extracting layers of meaning from each line.
"The Master does nothing, yet he leaves nothing undone." (Chapter 2)
Paradox and Ambiguity
The text frequently employs paradoxes, which challenge conventional logic and invite readers to think beyond dualistic thought. For example, "The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao" immediately sets the tone for a philosophy that transcends verbal expression. The use of paradox highlights the ineffable nature of the Tao and encourages intuitive understanding.
"The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao; the name that can be named is not the eternal name." (Chapter 1)
Metaphor and Symbolism
Laozi uses rich metaphorical language to convey complex ideas. Common natural symbols include water, the uncarved block, and the valley. These metaphors illustrate the principles of flexibility, simplicity, and receptivity. For instance, water symbolizes the strength found in softness and yielding, a recurring theme in the text.
"Water is fluid, soft, and yielding. But water will wear away rock, which is rigid and cannot yield. As a rule, whatever is fluid, soft, and yielding will overcome whatever is rigid and hard. This is another paradox: what is soft is strong." (Chapter 78)
Didactic Tone
Despite its brevity, the Tao Te Ching often adopts a didactic tone, providing guidance on governance, personal conduct, and spiritual practice. This instructional quality reflects Laozi’s intention to impart practical wisdom that can be applied to both rulers and individuals seeking harmony with the Tao.
"Manifest plainness, embrace simplicity, reduce selfishness, have few desires." (Chapter 19)
Zhuangzi by Zhuang Zhou
Narrative and Anecdotal Style
Unlike the terse aphorisms of the Tao Te Ching, the Zhuangzi uses a narrative style rich with anecdotes, parables, and dialogues. This approach makes the text more accessible and engaging, offering vivid stories that illustrate philosophical points. The use of storytelling helps convey complex ideas in a more relatable manner.
"Once upon a time, I, Zhuang Zhou, dreamt I was a butterfly, fluttering hither and thither, to all intents and purposes a butterfly. I was conscious only of my happiness as a butterfly, unaware that I was Zhou. Soon I awakened, and there I was, veritably myself again. Now I do not know whether I was then a man dreaming I was a butterfly, or whether I am now a butterfly, dreaming I am a man." (Chapter 2)
Humor and Irony
The Zhuangzi is infused with humor, irony, and wit, often poking fun at rigid intellectualism and societal norms. This playful tone serves to undermine conventional wisdom and highlight the relativity of human perceptions. For instance, the humorous story of Zhuang Zhou dreaming he is a butterfly questions the nature of reality and identity.
"There was a man of Song who was good at making carvings of monkeys and sold them. His family was poor, and he could hardly make a living. Another man of Song who was rich said to him, 'I hear you are good at carving monkeys. I want to hire you to carve some for me. You will be paid generously.' The carver of monkeys replied, 'I make carvings of monkeys to support myself. Now you ask me to make them for money. My heart will no longer be in it.'"
Philosophical Dialogues
The text frequently employs dialogues between historical and fictional figures to explore philosophical concepts. These conversations, often between Confucius and his disciples, or between Taoist sages, serve as a medium to present multiple perspectives and deepen the exploration of Taoist ideas.
"Hui Tzu said to Chuang Tzu, 'I have a large tree, which the carpenters call ailanthus. Its trunk is too gnarled to apply a measuring line to, its branches too bent to use a compass or square on. It stands by the road, but carpenters never notice it. Now your words are like this tree—big and useless, and so everyone alike spurns them!' Chuang Tzu replied, 'Have you never seen a wildcat or a weasel? It crouches down and hides, watching for something to come along. It leaps this way and that, high and low, until it gets caught in a trap and dies in the net. But then there’s the yak, big as a cloud covering the sky. It stands there in its might, big and useless. So if you have big uselessness, you’re sure to live long.'"
Imagery and Symbolism
Like the Tao Te Ching, the Zhuangzi uses rich imagery and symbolism. The text’s vivid descriptions of nature, animals, and mythical creatures enhance its philosophical narratives, providing a sensory dimension to abstract concepts.
"In the northern darkness there is a fish and his name is Kun. The Kun is so huge I don't know how many thousand li he measures. He changes and becomes a bird whose name is Peng. The back of the Peng measures I don't know how many thousand li across, and when he rises up and flies off, his wings are like clouds all over the sky."
Max Stirner’s Egoism
Max Stirner's work The Ego and Its Own or better: The Unique and His Property (Der Einzige und sein Eigentum), published in 1844, is a foundational text of egoist philosophy. Stirner, a German philosopher and contemporary of Karl Marx, presents a radical critique of conventional morality, political ideologies, and social norms from a perspective centered on the autonomy and sovereignty of the individual ego.
Key Themes and Concepts
Egoism and Self-Ownership
Stirner's central thesis revolves around the concept of egoism, which he defines as the primacy of the individual self (or ego) over external authorities and ideologies. He asserts his own interests and desires without letting anyone contrain him through moral obligations or collective norms imposed by society, religion, or the state. For Stirner, true freedom and fulfillment come from embracing one's unique desires and interests, rather than conforming to external ideals or obligations.
Stirner's emphasis on egoism, prioritizing autonomy and rejecting external constraints, resonates with Taoism's focus on aligning with the Tao and with one's desire, free from external moral or societal impositions.
Stirner critiques what he calls "fixed ideas" which he describes as illusions or spooks which include moral principles, religious beliefs, political ideologies, and social norms. He argues that these fixed ideas are social constructs that individuals often internalize and allow to dominate their lives, thereby restricting their freedom and autonomy.
Similarly, Taoism critiques attachments to fixed concepts and labels, and advocates for a state of non-attachment where individuals transcend societal constructs and external influences.
The Union of Egoists
Stirner advocates for a voluntary association of egoists, which he calls the union of egoists. This concept entails individuals freely coming together based on mutual self-interest and shared goals, rather than being bound by external rules or obligations. In this union, individuals interact and cooperate based on their own desires and agreements, without moral or ideological constraints.
The same goes for Taoist philosophy which emphasizes the organic flow of relationships and interactions, where individuals cooperate and collaborate freely without the need for external moral or ideological constraints.
Critique of Authority and Power
The Ego and Its Own also critiques traditional forms of authority and power, including the state, religious institutions, and societal hierarchies. Stirner argues that these institutions derive their authority from individuals who relinquish their autonomy and submit to external control.
Similarly, Taoist philosophy emphasizes the transcending of external influences that seek to control or dominate.
Style
Max Stirner's The Ego and Its Own employs a distinctive and provocative rhetorical style that is central to its philosophical impact. Several key elements characterize this style:
Confrontational Tone
Stirner's writing is marked by a direct and often confrontational tone. He challenges prevailing philosophical and ideological norms with a sense of urgency and defiance. His rhetoric is designed to provoke and unsettle, aiming to shake readers out of their complacency and to question deeply held beliefs.
"What is supposed to be my concern? First and foremost, the Good Cause, then God’s Cause, then the cause of mankind, of truth, of freedom, of humanity, of justice; further, the cause of my people, my prince, my fatherland; finally, even the cause of Mind, and a thousand other causes. Only my cause is never to be my concern. 'Shame on the egoist who thinks only of himself!'"
Irony and Sarcasm
Irony and sarcasm are prevalent throughout the text. Stirner frequently uses these devices to mock the abstractions and idealisms of other philosophers, particularly Hegelianism, which he sees as overly abstract and disconnected from individual experience. This use of irony helps to undermine the authority of the concepts he critiques.
"Man, your head is haunted; you have wheels in your head! You imagine great things, and depict to yourself a whole world of gods that has an existence for you, a spirit-realm to which you suppose yourself to be called, an ideal that beckons to you. You have a fixed idea! Do not think that I jest or speak figuratively when I regard those persons who cling to the Higher, the General, and the Good as veritable fools, fools in a madhouse."
Personal and Polemical Approach
Stirner often writes in the first person, making his arguments personal and polemical. He speaks directly to the reader, using personal anecdotes and hypothetical scenarios to illustrate his points. This approach makes his philosophy more accessible and engaging, while also emphasizing the individuality that is central to his thought.
"My intercourse with the world consists in my enjoying it, and so consuming it for my self-enjoyment. You are nothing to me but—my food, even as I too am fed upon and turned to use by you. We have only one relation to each other, that of usableness, of utility, of use."
Repetition and Emphasis
Stirner employs repetition for emphasis, often reiterating key concepts and phrases to drive home his points. Phrases like "the unique one" and "the ego" are repeated throughout the text, reinforcing the centrality of the individual to his philosophy.
"I am not an ego along with other egos, but the sole ego; I am unique."
Use of Paradox and Contradiction
Stirner embraces paradox and contradiction, reflecting his rejection of absolute truths and his belief in the fluidity of the self. He often presents ideas that seem contradictory on the surface, encouraging readers to think beyond conventional logic and to embrace the complexity of their own experiences and desires.
"All things are nothing to me."
Engagement with Opposing Philosophies
Stirner actively engages with the ideas of other philosophers, particularly those of Hegel, Feuerbach, and the Young Hegelians. He critiques their emphasis on abstract ideals such as "humanity," "essence," and "the state," arguing that these concepts enslave the individual by subordinating personal interests to collective abstractions.
"The Hegelian ‘free and rational being’ is in its essence a ‘spiritual’ or ‘conceptual’ being, and the real being is only its predicate, its property."
Provocative and Radical Assertions
The text is filled with provocative and radical assertions designed to shock and challenge. Stirner makes bold claims about the nature of self-interest, property, and authority, rejecting all forms of external authority in favor of individual autonomy. His radical redefinition of concepts like "egoism" and "property" serves to upend traditional moral and philosophical categories.
"All laws assure me my property. Property is what I call mine, and of property I can make neither head nor tail, because my property is only — my own."
The Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi employ a rhetorical style characterized by brevity, paradox, and metaphorical richness, aiming to convey philosophical insights through concise aphorisms and vivid narratives. Laozi's Tao Te Ching utilizes succinct, enigmatic statements to evoke contemplation on the ineffable Tao and the principles of wu wei, emphasizing simplicity and harmony. Zhuangzi expands upon Taoist themes with humor, irony, and narrative depth, employing allegories and dialogues to challenge societal norms and intellectual pretensions while advocating for a fluid and spontaneous approach to life.
In contrast, Max Stirner's The Ego and Its Own adopts a confrontational and polemical tone, using direct address, irony, and repetition to critique external authorities and moral constructs. This creates a unique effect. Stirner's style aims to provoke and unsettle, and, in my opinion, this is done FOR A REASON.
How and Why Stirner’s Egoism Resists Commodification
So, let’s summarize all the ways Stirner’s very DELIBERATE APPROACH to expression manages to resist commodification. Let’s start with the non-stylistic reasons:
Intellectual Niche
Stirner's philosophy is considered niche within Western philosophical discourse. It challenges traditional moral and political ideologies directly. This makes it less accessible and appealing to mainstream audiences compared to more popularized Eastern spiritual practices that focus on meditation, yoga, and mindfulness - all organized, practical and more overarching aspects of philosophical thought, which is easily turned into an aesthetic.
Lack of Romanticization
Eastern philosophies often became popular in the West during the Romantic era and later through movements like Theosophy and New Age, which romanticized and exoticized Eastern cultures. Stirner's philosophy, in contrast, is often seen as confrontational and anti-romantic. What is the aesthetic there? Even if it were aestheticized as some kind of anti-establishment fashion, it would instantly lose its philosophical qualities. Essentially, the aesthetic would be far to antisocial to have a relevant impact on mainstream culture.
Stirner's emphasis on the rejection of external authority extends to a radical critique of aesthetics. This stance can be seen as threatening to the inherent power of aesthetics and is therefore much less conducive to commercialization.
Unlike Eastern philosophies that have gained institutional support through yoga studios, meditation centers, and academic departments, Stirner's philosophy lacks similar institutional backing or commercial ventures. Obviously.
Stirner's philosophy pretty much says directly: If all things are not nothing to you then wtf you doin? So…obviously this can be seen as subversive and contrary to mainstream acceptance and commodification.
STYLE
Provocative and Confrontational Tone
Stirner's writing style is often provocative and confrontational. He challenges deeply ingrained moral and political ideals, and stands for radical individualism and the assertion of personal desires and interests over societal norms. This confrontational tone can be unsettling to mainstream audiences and poses a barrier to its commodification, which often seeks to appeal to broad, non-controversial sentiments.
Absence of Prescriptive Advice or Practices
Unlike many popular self-help or spiritual texts that offer prescriptive advice or practices for personal improvement or well-being, Stirner's work does not provide easy solutions or guidelines for living. Instead, he just kind of does his own dismantling of ideological constructs while we are watching.
Lack of Promises or Hope
Stirner's philosophy lacks the commercial appeal of hope which is found in more marketable spiritual or self-improvement movements. It does not offer promises of enlightenment, inner peace, or material success that are often used to market spiritual practices or ideologies.
So…what did we learn? Max Stirner's philosophical work stands apart from mainstream commodification for several compelling reasons. His deliberate rhetorical style and positioning in philosophical discourse directly challenges conventional moral and political ideologies rather than offering prescriptive solutions or spiritual promises.
But why do we even need to resist commodification?
Well…I am not saying you have to. But I sure as hell would like to.
I feel that resisting commodification, especially in philosophical discourse, as exemplified by Max Stirner's egoism, is crucial to maintaining a critical perspective.
I tend to view commodification as something that wants to trivialize my entire existence. Commodification reduces me to a marketable product. And to me that means I lose my own radical potential.
And what I mean by that is not radical potential for revolution or some other cause. But for the connection I have with myself.
It is so easy to become caught up in stories, narratives, causes, ideals, concepts and other spooks.
So I would like to always do my best to resist enough in order to be able to say:
All Things Are Nothing To Me.