Max Stirner is best known for his radical ideas on individuality and egoism as articulated in The Ego and Its Own (Der Einzige und sein Eigentum). In this book he explains that agency and self-realization come from rejecting all forms of authority including external authorities like institutions, as well as internalizations like social norms. The text explores his own approach to his unique process of shedding those authorities and internalizations to arrive at a form of ‘selfhood’ he calls The Unique One (Der Einzige). In doing this he challenges the legitimacy of institutions, ideologies, and identity formations that are derived through deliberate or covert infiltration of desire as a productive force and main influencing aspect of an individual’s psychic experience.
His insights into art, particularly as expressed in his essay Art and Religion (Kunst und Religion), offer a compelling extension of his philosophical framework, even though the essay was published before his main work.
In this essay, Stirner presents art as, both, an expression of egoism - an endeavor that allows for self-revelation and self-enjoyment - as well as a dangerous gateway to spook-land which holds the potential of catapulting people into sensual slavery.
However, by comparing art to religion, which he critiques for imposing abstract and overarching moral ideals, Stirner manages to show how art’s potential for expression shines brighter than its potential for co-optation. He presents art as a domain of free creation within the sensuous world, where the individual can assert their autonomy and creativity.
By exploring Stirner's views on art, we gain a deeper understanding of his broader philosophical themes and their implications for aesthetics and creativity. In this essay we will look first at how art has been perceived and conceptualized throughout the past few centuries, and then we will look closer at how Max Stirner conceptualizes the potential of art as it is unique and way ahead of its time.
Defining Aesthetics
To understand the potential of art we have to dive into the study of Aesthetics, a philosophical discipline that concerns itself with the nature of beauty, art, and sensory perception. It explores questions such as what makes something beautiful, how art is created and interpreted, and the role of aesthetic experience in human life and culture.
At its core, aesthetics examines the qualities that evoke emotions like empathy, sadness, fear, anxiety, and sensual experiences like pleasure, satisfaction, or disgust and what that reaction could mean. These perceptions can include visual (art, design), auditory (music), tactile (texture), olfactory (scents), and gustatory (taste) sensations. Aesthetics also encompasses the study of emotional and intellectual responses to these sensory stimuli.
Key areas of inquiry within aesthetics also include social and political aspects of art and beauty. Basically, aesthetics investigates the concept of beauty and its subjective and objective dimensions, asking whether beauty is universal or culturally determined, and how it influences our perceptions and judgments. It also focuses on the psychological and emotional impact of art and beauty on individuals. This includes discussions on how aesthetic experiences shape identity, empathy, and cultural values. And it considers the broader implications of aesthetics in social and political contexts. This includes examining how art and beauty intersect with issues of power, identity, and representation.
A Brief History of Aesthetics in Philosophical Inquiry
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
Immanuel Kant's Critique of Judgment (1790) is pivotal in understanding how he views art as a bridge between reason and sensibility. Kant posits that aesthetic judgments are based on subjective feeling rather than cognitive reasoning, emphasizing the universal and disinterested nature of aesthetic appreciation. He writes:
"Beauty is indeed the form of the purposiveness of an object, so far as perceived in it without any representation of a purpose."
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831)
Hegel's Lectures on Aesthetics (1835) provide a historical progression of art as a manifestation of the development of human spirit and consciousness. He sees art evolving through different stages — symbolic, classical, and romantic — culminating in absolute spirit in philosophy. Hegel articulates:
"Art, considered in its highest vocation, is and remains for us a thing of the past."
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)
In The Birth of Tragedy (1872), Nietzsche contrasts the Dionysian (emotional, chaotic) and Apollonian (order, rationality) aspects of art. He argues that the tension between these forces gives rise to great art, particularly tragic drama, which embodies profound existential truths. Nietzsche writes:
"Without music, life would be a mistake."
Martin Heidegger (1889-1976)
Heidegger's The Origin of the Work of Art (1935) explores art as a way for humanity to reveal truths about being and existence. He emphasizes the artwork as a "setting-into-work" that opens up worlds of meaning, challenging traditional conceptions of art as mere representation. Heidegger reflects:
"The essence of the work of art is the truth setting itself to work."
Theodor Adorno (1903-1969)
Adorno's Aesthetic Theory (1970) explores the relationship between art and society, particularly in the context of modernity and capitalism. He critiques the commodification of art and advocates for its autonomy and critical potential. Adorno argues:
"Art is magic delivered from the lie of being truth."
Jacques Derrida (1930-2004)
Jacques Derrida, a key figure in poststructuralist thought, challenges traditional notions of art and aesthetics through his concept of deconstruction. He questions the stability of meanings in art and language, suggesting that interpretations are fluid and context-dependent. Derrida writes:
"There is nothing outside of the text."
Michel Foucault (1926-1984)
Michel Foucault's explorations in The Order of Things (1966) and other works examine how power structures shape knowledge and discourse about art. He investigates how systems of thought categorize and control artistic practices, revealing underlying social and political dynamics. Foucault asserts:
"In societies like ours, the 'visual' is not simply what can be seen or even what is seen; it is a field of knowledge and power."
Susan Sontag (1933-2004)
Susan Sontag, in Against Interpretation (1966) and other essays, challenges the tendency to interpret art solely through critical analysis. She advocates for experiencing art directly and embracing its sensory and emotional impact, rather than reducing it to intellectual discourse. Sontag provocatively states:
"Interpretation takes the sensory experience of the work of art for granted, and proceeds from there."
Max Stirner’s conceptualization of art connects to the many theories presented here in unique ways. Let’s now look at how Max Stirner conceptualized aesthetics and art.
Art as Egoism
As briefly mentioned above, Max Stirner conceptualized art in two opposing ways. One the one hand, art was seen as a form of egoism, while on the other hand, it was presented as potentially dangerous to the integrity of the individual due to its ability to affect the individual on an emotional and sensual level. Let’s first look at the ‘positive ways’ Max Stirner indirectly applies to art in his texts The Ego and its Own and Art & Religion.
Art as Self-Expression and Agency
Max Stirner's philosophy places significant emphasis on individuality and the expression of the self, which can be directly related to art as a form of self-expression. Although Stirner did not write extensively about art, his ideas about egoism and self-assertion provide a rich foundation for understanding art in this context. In a quote from The Ego and its Own, he states:
"I am my own only when I am master of myself, instead of being mastered either by sensuality or by anything else (God, man, authority, law, state, church, etc.); what is of use to me is not that which is good in itself, but that which is good for me."
Max Stirner, The Ego and its Own
This quote highlights Stirner’s belief in self-mastery as a gateway to agency and the importance of autonomy. Applied to art, it suggests that artistic expression is not about adhering to standards or ideals, but about what genuinely reflects and serves the experiencing ego.
Art as self-expression is about conveying the artist’s authenticity, which - to Stirner - is whatever the artist seeks to express. It is thereby a direct assertion of one’s ownness, unless, of course, it is created for another purpose, in which case it could be a means to an end or various other things, which, within the egoist framework, would be totally legit as long as it doesn’t come from a place of seeking social approval of some sort.
As mentioned in the paragraph above, art can therefore be an expression of self-ownership. And self-ownership implies agency. By creating art as a means to an end that serves one’s personal desire, it becomes an expression of agency. The artist exercises control over their personal narrative and existence, and reinforces their mastery over their own identity.
Art as Intimacy with Oneself
Man is to man the supreme being, and this fact is independent of the individuality of men."
Max Stirner, The Ego and its Own
Stirner sees art as a form of intimacy or connection with oneself. It is a fundamental form of self-enjoyment and self-revelation that highlights the personal and intrinsic value of artistic creation.
This quote underscores Stirner’s belief in the primacy of the individual and the inherent creative power accessible to individuals. It suggests that artistic creation is a fundamental aspect of expressing one’s individuality and asserting one’s unique will and abilities.
Now, as art has created the Ideal for man, and with this gives man’s understanding an object to wrestle with, a wrestling match which will, in the course of time, give worth to those empty objects of the understanding, so is art the creator of religion...
Max Stirner, Art & Religion
Through art, individuals can express their distinct perspectives, emotions, and ideas, and connect with their personal creativity in a unique way.
Art as Liberation
Art will not liberate itself from church and state until it has liberated itself from itself.
Max Stirner, The Ego and its Own
This quote captures Stirner’s vision of liberation as breaking free from the constraints of reality to engage in the boundless creation of one’s own world. Applied to art, it suggests that art can serve as a means of liberation, to transcend societal limitations and explore creative freedom.
So, in this way, art provides a means to transcend the constraints imposed by society, culture, and reality. Art as a form of liberation involves the freedom to create and destroy without restriction and it involves subverting existing paradigms and exploring new possibilities in what ever way the individual chooses.
Art as Social Critique
"Our atheists are pious people. True, they no longer believe in a personal God, but they still believe in a 'higher essence,' and that is Man, Humanity. The essence of man is the same phantasm as the essence of God: it is a ghost."
This quote illustrates Stirner's critique of societal ideals and constructs, which he views as abstract spooks or illusions that hold power over individuals. Applying this to art, Stirner would likely support the idea of art that critiques these societal constructs—whether they are religious, political, or cultural—by exposing them as mere illusions that constrain ownness.
Art that challenges the ideals of "Man" and "Humanity" as higher essences would likely be approved of by Stirner because it can deconstruct massive meaning-production machines, and reveal their oppressive nature in a comprehensible and accessible way.
Although Stirner did not explicitly address art as a form of social critique, his philosophical stance on societal constructs provides a strong foundation for interpreting art in this way. Art that challenges societal norms, exposes illusions, and promotes individual ownness can be seen as an extension of Stirner's critique of societal ideals and his egoism.
Art as Rejection of Authority of Meaning
"The habit of the language has trained us to separate where no separation is made, and to make things where there is nothing but an operation, an activity; the habit of the language sees in action, work, etc., something else than action, work, etc. itself; it sees the producer and the product, the doer and the deed. The doer is not everything in the deed, the product, but he is in everything in the action."
As mentioned before, Stirner views art as a potential destructive force which can aid the individual in self-realization. The quote above reflects Stirner's broader critique of abstract concepts and universal norms. Applying this to art, Stirner would likely view artistic conventions and the idea of universal beauty as an artificial construct that imposes standards on individual expression.
In essence, Stirner would likely reject the notion of universal beauty in favor of a more subjective and individualistic approach to aesthetics, where beauty is defined by the self and its unique experiences and expressions.
The Dark Potential of Art
Max Stirner presents a unique perspective on aesthetics in his essay Art and Religion (alongside his main work) that offers a kind of overarching perspective of art. It also frames art’s potential in a way that wouldn’t come up again until a while later, so, in that way, he was definitely ahead of his time.
Against Romantic Ideals
For thinkers like Kant and Hegel but even Nietzsche and Heidegger, art embodies ideals of beauty, truth, and higher spiritual or cultural values. They explore the transformative and elevating potential of art, its ability to reveal truths about existence, and its role in spiritual and cultural development. These philosophers celebrate nature, viewing individual expression as connected to something more, something larger than the individual, and they look for and imagine its emotional depth. They see art as a means to engage with the sublime and irrational aspects of human experience.
Hegel treats of art before religion. This order is fitting, even under a merely historical perspective. Now, as soon as man suspects that he has another side of himself (Jenseits) within himself, and that he is not enough in his mere natural state, then he is driven on to divide himself into that which he actually is, and that which he should become.
Max Stirner, Art and Religion
In relation to Hegel, for example, Stirner finds that kind of conceptualization which takes away from the individual, difficult. He criticizes romanticized notions of art that elevate it to a transcendent or ideal realms beyond individual experience. Stirner argues that art can be a tool of domination and illusion, used by authorities (whether religious, cultural, or political) to impose ideologies and manipulate individuals. He sees art as potentially reinforcing societal norms and power structures rather than liberating individuals from them. He rejects the notion that art should serve as a vehicle for cultural, societal or religious truths and that it should not surpass the realm of serving individual desires and interests.
When it comes to life in general, Stirner's focus is on the here-and-now as experienced by the individual, in a deeper pursuit never to forget about the importance of autonomy and self-interest.
The here-and-now concept also exists in Heidegger’s work. He calls it Dasein which is basically a fancy way of saying that human existence is somehow special because it is experienced by individuals. Heidegger's philosophy, particularly in The Origin of the Work of Art, explores art as a revealing process that opens up the truth and meaning of human existence. Heidegger sees art as a way for humans to encounter and understand their existence more authentically, beyond mere rationality. He emphasizes the role of art in disclosing the world and revealing deeper ontological truths about being-in-the-world.
Stirner's critique of romanticism in art, particularly its potential to create illusions and false idols, indirectly challenges Heidegger's emphasis on art's revelatory capacity. Stirner rejects the notion that art should serve as a vehicle for transcendent truths or societal values. The individual does not need to be part of some higher experience than itself.
Art creates disunion, in that it sets the Ideal over and against man. But this view, which has so long endured, is called religion, and it will only endure until a single demanding eye again draws that Ideal within and devours it.
Max Stirner, Art & Religion
Practical Aesthetics
Unlike Kant, Hegel, Nietzsche, and even Heidegger who discussed aesthetics in terms of its theoretical and philosophical dimensions, Stirner's approach to aesthetics is more pragmatic. He emphasizes the practical utility of art in serving desires and interests. Stirner views art as a means of personal expression and enjoyment rather than as an object of intellectual contemplation or cultural validation. He is concerned with how individuals can use art to assert their unique ownness and as a way to challenge prevailing norms and ideologies.
Stirner's emphasis on the practical utility of art aligns with Sontag's critique of over-intellectualizing art in Against Interpretation (1966). Sontag argues against reducing art to mere theory or interpretation, and advocates instead for a direct, sensory engagement with artworks. This resonates with Stirner's view of art as a means of personal expression and enjoyment, serving individual desires and interests rather than abstract ideals or philosophical contemplation.
Art creates disunion, in that it sets the Ideal over and against man. But this view, which has so long endured, is called religion, and it will only endure until a single demanding eye again draws that Ideal within and devours it.
Max Stirner, Art & Religion
Moreover, Stirner and Sontag share a concern for the autonomy and uniqueness of individual experience in relation to art. Stirner's concept of ownness (Eigenheit) emphasizes the importance of individuals asserting their unique identities and desires through art, which - in itself - is a form of self-legitimization and a rejection of societal norms and ideologies. Similarly, Sontag emphasizes the role of art in expanding individual consciousness and resisting the constraints of cultural and intellectual frameworks that seek to limit or define artistic expression.
Ownership and Art
Stirner also rejects the idea that art has cultural, or social value. This can be seen as an extension of his radical views on ownership which challenges conventional notions of property and possession. He rejects the idea that anything created by individual ownness should or could be owned or controlled by authorities, whether they be cultural institutions, governments, or societal norms.
Art makes the Object, and religion lives only in its many ties to that Object, but philosophy very clearly sets itself apart from both. It neither stands enmeshed with an Object, as religion, nor makes one, as art, but rather places its pulverizing hand upon all the business of making Objects as well as the whole of objectivity itself, and so breathes the air of freedom.
Max Stirner, Art & Religion
Stirner's rejection of the cultural or social value of art parallels Foucault's exploration of how knowledge and cultural practices are shaped by power dynamics. Foucault's work, such as in The Order of Things and Discipline and Punish, critiques how institutions and discourses construct and enforce norms and values. Similarly, Stirner argues against the imposition of cultural or societal values onto art.
Art and Commodification
Unlike Hegel, Kant, Heidegger and Nietzsche, Stirner critiques the commodification of art as a form of alienation and domination. He is skeptical of how art can be co-opted and used to manipulate or exploit individuals. Stirner's focus is on preserving the authenticity and personal significance of art.
This critique of the commodification of art aligns with the perspectives of Michel Foucault and Theodor Adorno, albeit from different angles within the realm of cultural and philosophical critique.
Art, other than philosophy, is compelled to draw forth from its seclusion within the concealing darkness of the subject the proper and best form of the spirit, the most completely idealized expression of the spirit itself, and to develop it and to release it as an Object. At that,’man stands opposite to this Object, this creation of his spirit, to the God, and even the artist falls before it on his knees.
Max Stirner, Art & Religion
Foucault's analysis of power relations in Discipline and Punish and other works provides a framework for understanding Stirner's concerns about the commercialization of art. Foucault examines how institutions and discourses exert control over cultural artifacts, including art, and determine their value within society. He critiques the ways in which economic forces and power structures regulate artistic production and consumption, because it has a massive influence on what art is created, exhibited, and revered.
The real, continuous, methods of training, the rigorous, uninterrupted exercises are imposed by these methods of architectural coercion. The constant coercion imposed upon the individual by a corporation, which is formed by the individuals which together compose it.
Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish
Adorno, a prominent member of the Frankfurt School, addresses the commodification of art extensively in his work Aesthetic Theory and other writings. He critiques how capitalist societies reduce art to a commodity, and strip it of its critical and radical potential. Adorno argues that art's autonomy and authenticity are undermined when it becomes subjected to market forces and commercial interests. He sees commodification as a form of alienation that distorts art's ability to challenge dominant ideologies and offer genuine aesthetic experiences.
The whole world is made to pass through the filter of the culture industry. The old experience of the movie-goer, who sees the world outside as an extension of the film he has just left (because the latter is intent upon reproducing the world of everyday perceptions), is now the producer's guideline. The more intensely and flawlessly his techniques duplicate empirical objects, the easier it is today for the illusion to prevail that the outside world is the straightforward continuation of that presented on the screen. This purpose serves modern painting, whether it is the purist or the abstract.
Theodor W. Adorno, The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception, in Dialectic of Enlightenment (co-authored with Max Horkheimer)
Stirner's skepticism towards the idealization of art echoes their critiques of how capitalist systems and institutional frameworks manipulate and exploit cultural products for economic gain or social control. Stirner's focus on preserving the significance of the momentary personal experience of art and artistic expression challenges the pervasive influence of idealistic pressures and societal expectations.
Why The Dark Side Can’t Win
Stirner shows us both sides of art and aesthetics. He explains that art is a pleasurable experience for individuals, in whatever way they like it, or, it can be coopted and used to throw us into spook-land. This isn’t done through some well-thought out process or plan by some authority. It is done by means of idealism - meaning, it is done by believing in a fundamental essence that goes beyond the momentary pleasure and self-experience or self-connection of the individual. This is why he compares it to religious faith.
And his direct comparison helps us understand the negative and positive potentials of art within an egoist framework.
Artistic Inspiration vs. Religious Faith
Central to Stirner’s perspective is the distinction between artistic inspiration and religious faith, which he argues fundamentally shapes their respective impacts on individuals and society.
Stirner draws a parallel between art and religion, suggesting that both involve a form of enthusiasm that elevates the individual. However, he also distinguishes between the two, noting that while artistic inspiration is tied to creativity, religious faith is tied to belief in something beyond the self.
So while he acknowledges that both involve a form of enthusiasm that elevates the individual beyond mundane existence, he also highlights a crucial difference: artistic inspiration is rooted in creativity and the individual’s expressive capacity, whereas religious faith hinges on belief in something beyond the self—an external doctrine or deity.
The Essence of Art and Religion
Stirner further elucidates his perspective by noting that both are capable of presenting higher ideals that surpass human existence. However, he emphasizes that they do so in contrasting ways.
Art, according to Stirner, creates a sensuous world—a tangible, sensory realm that reflects the creator’s imaginative expression. In contrast, religion constructs an intellectual or supersensuous world—an abstract realm of beliefs and ideals that transcend immediate sensory experience.
This distinction underscores Stirner’s view that art operates within the realm of personal creativity and sensory perception, offering a space for individuals to explore and express their unique perspectives without the imposition of external dogma or authority.
Freedom and Boundaries in Art
Stirner acknowledges that art allows for a certain freedom of expression within the sensory world. He contends that while art liberates the spirit to create and innovate, it remains bound by worldly constraints. This nuanced perspective reflects Stirner’s recognition that art, while offering freedom and creativity, is still influenced by societal norms and practical limitations.
However, despite these boundaries, Stirner values art as a domain of free creation within the sensuous realm. He sees this freedom as essential for individuals to assert their autonomy and challenge conventional expectations.
Ultimately, Stirner’s perspective on art celebrates its capacity to inspire and elevate individuals while cautioning against the dangers of ideological and religious imposition.
However, this is a thin line. So, remember not to let the spooks get you.
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Bibliography
Books by Max Stirner:
Stirner, Max. The Ego and Its Own (Der Einzige und sein Eigentum).
Free Link: https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stirner/ego-and-its-own.htm
Stirner, Max. Art and Religion (Kunst und Religion).
Free Link: https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/max-stirner-art-and-religion
Books on Aesthetics and Philosophy:
Kant, Immanuel. Critique of Judgment. 1790.
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. Lectures on Aesthetics. 1835.
Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Birth of Tragedy. 1872.
Heidegger, Martin. The Origin of the Work of Art. 1935.
Adorno, Theodor. Aesthetic Theory. 1970.
Adorno, Theodor. The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception, in Dialectic of Enlightenment (co-authored with Max Horkheimer)
Derrida, Jacques. Of Grammatology. 1967. (Relevant to his concept of deconstruction.)
Foucault, Michel. The Order of Things. 1966.
Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish. 1975.
Sontag, Susan. Against Interpretation. 1966.