Modern psychology, as a discipline, is a huge interconnected pool of theories and practices aimed at understanding the human mind and behavior. Unfortunately - and this will be an accompanying topic of this essay - it has also lost connection with its psychoanalytic roots and has become deeply interwoven with a social capitalist agenda set out to pathologize non-conformity in the most subtle and infringing ways, while ignoring the negative impacts of this world we are supposed to be functioning in.
Before we get into emotions, let me explain what I mean by that: From cognitive-behavioral therapy to psychodynamic theories, the landscape of psychological thought is rich and interconnected - to say the least. Everything influences the study of the mind, including changes in technology, cultural trends, pharmaceutical innovations, media and institutions, and so much more. However, it is my contention that beneath this diversity lies a social capitalist ideology that positions psychology not just as a science of the mind, but as a practice intricately designed to maintain labor and consumer functionality. Keep this in mind as a background for the coming chapters.
But I digress…This essay is about emotions. And - more specifically - it is about how Max Stirner, as the voice of egoist philosophy, would most likely view, and discuss emotions as they are an integral part of the individual.
So our first path to this understanding has to lead us into the rabbit hole of the study of emotions - i.e. psychology, then take a detour into psychoanalysis, existentialism, perspectivism and critical theory (since it is my claim that Stirner’s approach utilizes a mix of the four approaches when analyzing ‘behavior’), to then arrive at the real reason you all are here reading this crap I write: Max Stirner and his very unique philosophical perspective.
So put on your gear and hold on to your hats, friends, because this is going to get deep af.
What are Emotions?
This may seem self-explanatory at first glance, but emotions are complex. Emotions are also pretty much the central topic in both psychology and neuroscience, and they are studied through a variety of methods and theoretical approaches.
But as a general definition I am going to use a basic summary of all the various definitions I could find: Emotions are complex psychological states that involve three distinct components: a subjective experience, a physiological response, and a behavioral or expressive response. They are often triggered by specific events or situations and can influence thoughts, actions, and interpersonal interactions. Emotions also play a crucial role in behavior and decision-making, and help individuals respond adaptively to their environment.
A History of the Study of Emotions
Before I can get into how Max Stirner would study emotions, let me give you a brief overview of the study of emotions over time:
Ancient and Classical Philosophies
Philosophers like Plato and Aristotle laid the groundwork for understanding emotions. Plato saw emotions as potential disruptions to rational thought, while Aristotle viewed them as important components of ethical behavior and human motivation, while Stoicism emphasized controlling and overcoming destructive emotions to achieve a state of rationality and inner peace.
Middle Ages and Renaissance
During this time, emotions were explored within the context of religious and moral philosophy, often viewed through the lens of sin and virtue. Emotions began to be seen as natural human experiences, with a renewed interest in the individual's inner life and expression.
17th to 19th Centuries
René Descartes' Les Passions de l'Âme (1649) attempted to systematically categorize emotions and their physiological effects during this time. Furthermore, philosophers like John Locke and David Hume emphasized the role of experience and sensory input in the formation of emotions. Romanticism as a cultural movement celebrated intense emotions as essential to human experience and creativity.
19th Century
Charles Darwin’s work The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872) highlighted the evolutionary significance of emotional expressions, suggesting that emotions are universal and have adaptive value. At the same time, William James and Carl Lange independently proposed the James-Lange Theory, suggesting that emotions are the result of physiological responses to stimuli.
Early 20th Century
During this time, Sigmund Freud then made a huge mark in the study of emotions with his psychoanalytic theory, which emphasized unconscious processes and childhood experiences as central to understanding emotions.
A bit later, the Behaviorism school of thought largely ignored emotions, and began focusing instead on observable behaviors.
Mid-20th Century
During this time researchers from the realm of cognitive theory like Richard Lazarus emphasized the role of cognitive processes in the experience of emotions. Around the same time, figures like Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow from the realm of humanistic psychology focused on emotions as central to self-actualization and human potential.
Late 20th Century to Present
In the realm of neuroscience, advances in brain imaging and neurobiology have led to a deeper understanding of the brain mechanisms underlying emotions. A key figure here is Antonio Damasio. Another dominant modern study of emotions comes from the realm of evolutionary psychology. Researchers like Paul Ekman have studied the universality of facial expressions, supporting Darwin's ideas about the evolutionary roots of emotions. There is also a movement called positive psychology, which is led by Martin Seligman and others who examine positive emotions and their role in human flourishing.
Max Stirner’s Egoist Framework of Emotional Development
In the introduction, I made the claim that Max Stirner’s view of emotional behavior would follow a mix of psychoanalytic, existentialist, perspectivist and critical approaches which probably were more likely inspired by him than the other way around, since all of these theories came to light after his death. Let me outline the theories which will be important for my coming analysis:
Psychoanalysis (Freud and Lacan)
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory emphasizes the unconscious mind, where repressed desires and childhood experiences shape emotional behavior. Freud posits that emotions often stem from deep-seated conflicts between the id, ego, and superego. In this framework, Stirner’s concept of the “unique” individual could be seen as an attempt to break free from these internalized constraints.
Lacan extends Freud’s ideas by introducing the concept of the “mirror stage,” where the individual’s sense of self is formed through identification with an external image. Lacan’s theories of the Real, the Imaginary, and the Symbolic can help us understand how Stirner’s egoistic individual navigates and disrupts the established social orders and linguistic structures that shape emotional experience.
Perspectivism (Nietzsche)
Nietzsche’s perspectivism argues that all knowledge and truth are contingent upon the perspectives from which they are viewed. For Nietzsche, there are no objective truths, only interpretations shaped by individual will and power. Stirner’s rejection of absolute truths and embrace of personal autonomy aligns closely with Nietzsche’s perspectivism. Stirner’s “egoist” lives by their own values and perspectives, and challenges socially imposed emotions and moral codes.
Existentialism (Sartre)
Sartre’s existentialism centers on the idea of radical agency and the responsibility that comes with it. He posits that existence precedes essence, meaning individuals are not defined by any preexisting conditions but are free to create their own essence through choices and actions. Stirner’s emphasis on self-liberation and the creation of one’s own identity resonates with Sartre’s existentialist thought. The emotional behavior, in this view, is a manifestation of the individual's ongoing project of self-creation in the face of an inherently meaningless world.
Critical Theory (Foucault, Deleuze, and Guattari)
Foucault’s critical theory explores how power structures and discourses shape human behavior and societal norms. He examines the ways in which societal institutions exert control over individuals, influencing their emotions and behaviors. Stirner’s critique of authority reflects Foucault’s analysis of power relations and the ways individuals can resist and redefine these influences. Understanding what spooks are comes before shedding them after all.
Deleuze and Guattari’s work on deterritorialization and the rhizomatic nature of knowledge and subjectivity challenges hierarchical structures and embraces multiplicity and fluidity. Their concept of “desiring-machines” explores how desire operates within social structures, which aligns with Stirner’s view of individuals as unique entities driven by their own desires who are capable of rejecting external impositions. They provide a framework to understand Stirner’s egoism as a dynamic, ever-evolving process that defies fixed identities and structures.
Stirner’s Concept of (Emotional) Development
Max Stirner's concept of ownness (or Eigenheit) in his work The Ego and Its Own can be understood as a progression through different stages of personal development, starting in childhood and culminating in self-realization. Stirner outlines a potential but essentially universal process or journey where individuals move from spookland to achieving ownness. Now—keep in mind, this process doesn’t happen for most people. Most get stuck in the liminal space between adolescence and adulthood. However, this journey is universal in its potential and can, ultimately, free any individual from the liminality of social existence. I will give you a brief overview:
Positive vs. Negative Emotions as the Foundation of the Authority Spook
In childhood, emotions are significantly influenced by authorities and norms: Children often seek approval from parents, teachers, and peers. Positive emotions such as happiness and pride are closely tied to receiving praise and validation from these authorities. In relation to emotions, this stage includes a confrontation with negative emotions such as fear, guilt, and shame which are used by authorities to enforce conformity. Children learn to fear punishment and disapproval, which shapes their behavior and emotional responses. The need to conform can - of course - lead to the suppression of authentic emotions. Children might hide or modify their true feelings to align with what is expected of them, which can cause intense emotional alienation.
Emotional Rebellion
Adolescence is marked by emotional turbulence as individuals begin to question and rebel against authorities: Emotional Rebellion is a state where adolescents experience intense emotions of anger, frustration, and defiance as they challenge the rules and norms they have been taught. This emotional rebellion is a critical part of seeking independence which can become seriously undermined by subtle tactics of soft-authoritarianism like the illusion of choice, representation which forces things like relationship and identity constellations and models down our throats, and more.
Adolescents also face an existential crisis. The struggle to find one's own identity amidst conflicting emotions and societal expectations can lead to confusion, anxiety, and emotional instability. Adolescents grapple with the tension between their authentic feelings and the external pressures they face. Sadly, while they seek authentic emotional expression, they often don’t even know who they are and what they want as it is shaped by external influences. Despite this turmoil, this stage involves a search for authentic emotional expression. And if they manage to overcome the liminality of this stage, adolescents even begin to explore and assert their own emotional needs and desires, thereby laying the groundwork for an adulthood marked by emotional autonomy.
Emotional Autonomy
In adulthood, the journey toward ownness involves achieving emotional maturity and self-mastery: Adults engage in self-reflection to understand their emotional experiences and to distinguish between emotions that are truly their own and those influenced by external influences. This involves questioning why they feel certain ways and examining the sources of their emotions. As individuals move towards self-realization, they strive for the emotional autonomy mentioned before. This means being able to experience and express emotions based on their own values and desires rather than societal expectations. Emotional autonomy is a key aspect of self-mastery. Adults learn to channel their emotions constructively, and they learn to use them to guide their actions and decisions in ways that align with their own interests and values.
Needless to say, Max Stirner’s egoism is about emotional authenticity. Finding your way to it and unapologetically but also strategically using it to further your self-interest. So what we are talking about here is self-owned-self-expression which can only be achieved by identifying, deconstructing and shedding spooks and then embracing ownness.
Identifying, Deconstructing and Shedding Spooks
So before any of us can actually express our authentic emotions, we first have to identify, and deconstruct these spooks.
From a psychoanalytic perspective, Freud's theory of the unconscious mind and Lacan’s theory of the symbolic order illuminate how these spooks can embed themselves deeply within our psyche, and then manifest as repressed desires or internalized moral constraints that influence our emotions. So to identify spooks, we have to start within ourselves. We have to look at what we are ashamed of, and what we feel guilty about.
But the relevance of psychoanalysis ends here. We now have to go deeper and think about why we perceive these things as shameful or wrong. This is where Nietzsche’s perspectivism offers a nice…well…perspective. Nietzsche's perspectivism argues that all truths are contingent upon individual perspectives. So basically…the things that make you feel guilty and ashamed are things you hold as truths because you look for a truth that does not exist outside of yourself.
But wait? Does that mean you are somehow at fault for emotions? Were the Stoics right and we can actually master our emotions?
For Nietzsche, imposed "truths" suppress individual will and authentic emotional expression. Which leads me to Sartre's existentialism, with its emphasis on agency and the responsibility of self-creation. From an existentialist view, you have to arrive at a point of agency or you are basically a zombie with the values of a cop, meaning you are allowing imposed essences to define your being and lead your emotions.
But it is so difficult to avoid. This is shown by Michel Foucault, for example. Foucault's analysis of power relations and discourses elucidates how these spooks function to maintain societal control. Power structures and institutions, according to Foucault, shape human behavior and emotions by establishing norms and truths that individuals internalize. So in this way, spooks serve as instruments of power, and they ensure conformity and compliance.
Furthermore, and going even further down the spook-pipeline, we got Deleuze and Guattari arguing desire is actually a productive force that operates within social structures, often leading the co-optation and commodification of emotions and emotional reactions to continuously water down authenticity and drive us further and further away from the very truths which Nietzsche wants us to use to build our very own moral codes and norms.
Stirner basically takes all of these theories and exclaims that he lives his truth. He shows us that it is possible. And he is sharing it with us. Why? I don’t know. But I am grateful that he did. Because otherwise I would not be here writing this.
Emotional Ownness
So we have determined that identifying the spooks is difficult, deconstructing them is even more difficult. So I guess embracing ownness is like beating the last boss of Shadow of the Colossus.
But Stirner wants us to know that he did it. And so can you. Because your emotions belong to you. The more they belong to you. The more you are able to use them to further your self-interest.
This is why he gives us the framework for development which can be understood as a progression through various stages, with each stage reflecting a different relationship with emotions and spooks going from spookiest of spooks and distance from emotion to no longer relevant spooks and strong emotional authenticity.
Essentially, Stirner’s The Ego and its Own is a kind of unapologetic self-expression of Stirner’s very own emotional relationship to himself and the world around him. The very first words, namely “All Things Are Nothing To Me” are an exclamation of his ownness. The entire work is written as an expression of his ego. And in that way…it is inticing some of us, to this day, to find our way out of spookland toward our ownness.
Concluding Thoughts: Egoistic Self-Expression & Capitalism
Self-expression in Stirner's framework is the natural extension of self-acceptance. Once individuals have recognized and rejected the spooks that constrained them, they are free to express their ownness. This self-expression is not just a superficial display of individuality but a profound manifestation of one’s unique identity and desires.
In practical terms, embracing Stirner's philosophy means self-acceptance and self-expression and involves self-reflection, unapologetic but strategic self-expression driven by self-ownership and protection and reinforcement of one’s own legitimacy and legitimation capability.
Modern psychology, however, is deeply entwined with a social capitalist agenda, and often prioritizes functionality and conformity over self-expression and authenticity. Predominant therapeutic approaches, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), are designed to modify behavior and thought patterns to fit societal norms, which proves that productivity and adjustment are valued over individual uniqueness. This focus on pathologizing non-conformity subtly discourages authentic self-expression, as the aim is often to make individuals function effectively within existing social structures rather than to explore and validate their ownness. Consequently, the intrinsic value of personal authenticity is overshadowed by the imperative to conform to external standards and maintain societal order.
I believe that it is essential to scrutinize modern society’s psychological approach and view it within a broader sociocultural context. In my view, modern psychology is deeply interwoven with capitalist ideology and therefore easily becomes a spook promoter rather than supportive to the individual.
So I would like to end this essay with a call to identify, deconstruct and eliminate spooks and finding your way to your ownness by allowing yourself to exist and express yourself in an authentic state - which includes the understanding that you are an individual in a world that wants to choose for you what that means.
So, as we navigate the complexities of emotions and self-expression, it is vital to maintain a vigilant stance toward the subtle, pervasive spooks we encounter. These spooks often masquerade as well-meaning efforts to help us understand and manage our emotions, but they frequently serve to redirect our focus away from the broader sickness of the world which causes these problems in the first place.
Your emotions can be your own. It’s not easy to get there and to reclaim them, but it is possible. So…try not to let the spooks get you.
Bibliography
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Books & Texts mentioned:
- Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics. Translated by W.D. Ross, Oxford University Press, 2009: https://amzn.to/3LMny8K
- Darwin, Charles. The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. John Murray, 1872: https://amzn.to/3A8mgCG
- Descartes, René. Les Passions de l'Âme. 1649: https://amzn.to/3LKPHgG
- Damasio, Antonio. The Feeling of What Happens: Body and Emotion in the Making of Consciousness. Harcourt Brace, 1999: https://amzn.to/4d9wAsO
- Ekman, Paul. Emotions Revealed: Recognizing Faces and Feelings to Improve Communication and Emotional Life. Times Books, 2003: https://amzn.to/3ynQuRt
- Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Translated by Alan Sheridan, Pantheon Books, 1977: https://amzn.to/3WMzNZv
- Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams. Translated by James Strachey, Avon, 1965: https://amzn.to/3StM2HR
- Hume, David. A Treatise of Human Nature. Oxford University Press, 2000: https://amzn.to/3SATHUS
- James, William. The Principles of Psychology. Henry Holt and Company, 1890: https://amzn.to/3Sx5nI6
- Lacan, Jacques. Écrits: A Selection. Translated by Bruce Fink, Norton, 2002:https://amzn.to/4d7oeSb
- Lazarus, Richard S. Emotion and Adaptation. Oxford University Press, 1991: https://amzn.to/4dqRenJ
- LeDoux, Joseph. The Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional Life. Simon & Schuster, 1996: https://amzn.to/4cXeXfz
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- Maslow, Abraham. Toward a Psychology of Being. Wiley, 1968: https://amzn.to/3WvTdQV
- Nietzsche, Friedrich. On the Genealogy of Morals. Translated by Walter Kaufmann, Vintage, 1989: https://amzn.to/3Wx6lp2
- Plato. The Rebublic. Translated by Allan Bloom, Basic Books, 1991: https://amzn.to/46tYtcu
- Rogers, Carl. On Becoming a Person: A Therapist's View of Psychotherapy. Houghton Mifflin, 1961: https://amzn.to/3ynQEbx
- Sartre, Jean-Paul. Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology. Translated by Hazel E. Barnes, Philosophical Library, 1956: https://amzn.to/4fsLD22
- Seligman, Martin E.P. Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment. Free Press, 2002: https://amzn.to/3yyCSTv
- Schachter, Stanley, and Jerome E. Singer. "Cognitive, Social, and Physiological Determinants of Emotional State." Psychological Review, vol. 69, no. 5, 1962, pp. 379-399: https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1963-06064-001
- Stirner, Max. The Ego and Its Own. Translated by Steven T. Byington, Rebel Press, 1982: https://amzn.to/3ynR7KP
- Stoicism. Marcus Aurelius. Meditations. Translated by Gregory Hays, Modern Library, 2002: https://amzn.to/3WxiJW9
- Deleuze, Gilles, and Félix Guattari. Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. Translated by Robert Hurley, Mark Seem, and Helen R. Lane, Viking Press, 1977: https://amzn.to/3LP2XAJ
More resources on psychology and psychoanalysis: https://paradox-prodigy.blogspot.com/2024/07/guide-to-academic-lit-psychology.html